Cognitive Therapy and Research

PAPERS ACCEPTED FOR PUBLICATION

Last updated 6/14/00

Accepted as of 6/14/00

Priming of the emotional Stroop effect by a schema questionnaire. An experimental study of test order.

Lars-Gunnar Lundh
Department of Psychology
Stockholm University
S-106 91 Stockholm
Sweden

Abstract Forty persons were administered an emotional Stroop task with separation-related words and neutral words, together with the abandonment scale from Young's (1990) Schema Questionnaire (SQ). Half of the participants were administered the SQ abandonment scale prior to the Stroop task, and half were administered it after the Stroop task. The results showed that priming by the SQ abandonment scale produced Stroop interference for unmasked separation words. This suggests that attentional bias is influenced by priming, and that it may be methodologically important to control possible priming factors when administrering Stroop tasks and other measures of attentional bias.

Interpretation of ambiguous interoceptive stimuli in panic disorder and non-clinical panic

Jeffrey C. Richards, Ph.D.
School of Behavioural & Social Science & Humanities
University of Ballarat
PO Box 663
BALLARAT VIC 3353
AUSTRALIA

Abstract Cognitive bias in the misinterpretation of ambiguous interoceptive stimuli has been demonstrated in panic disorder. This study investigate whether this cognitive bias also occurs in people with non-clinical panic who are at risk of developing panic disorder. The responses of 25 people with non-clinical panic were compared to those of 20 people with panic disorder and 69 non-panic controls on a measure of interpretive bias, the Brief Body Sensations Interpretation Questionnaire. There was evidence for interpretive cognitive bias for ambiguous interoceptive stimuli among the non-clinical panickers which did not differ from that of the people with panic disorder, but which differed from the non-panic controls. High anxiety sensitivity predicted interpretive bias towards both interoceptive and external stimuli. Results therefore suggest that interpretive cognitive bias for ambiguous interoceptive stimuli may be a risk factor for the development of panic disorder.

Life Stress, Problem Solving, Perfectionism, and Depressive Symptoms in Chinese

Clinical Psychology Service Unit
Kwai Chung Hospital
Hong Kong

Abstract The present investigation sought to examine the roles of perfectionism and problem solving in the relations between stress-related depressive symptoms in a Chinese adult sample. One hundred and thirty-eight students in an open university in Hong Kong with a mean age of 28 years participated in the study. After controlling the effects of life stress, problem solving was shown to have significant main effects on both hopelessness and depressive features, whereas perfectionism was found to have main effects only on the later variable. In addition, the results indicated that two constructs played a moderating role in the relations between life stress with depressive symptoms and hopelessness. The findings revealed that perfectionism and problem solving were important cognitive-behavioral variables in accounting for variances of psychological distress across cultures. Limitations of the study were discussed.

Perfectionism, Anxiety, and Depression: Are the Relationships Independent?

Randy O. Frost
Department of Psychology
Smith College
Northampton, MA 01063

Abstract The present study examined the relationship between perfectionism and various features of anxiety to determine whether these features of anxiety were related to perfectionism independent of depression. A factor analysis of various measures of anxiety symptoms reduced the measures to three factors: obsessive-compulsive disorder, social anxiety/trait anxiety/worry, and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. All three factors were significantly related to maladaptive perfectionism, but the Social/Trait/Worry factor was the only factor found to be related to maladaptive perfectionism independent of depression. The PTSD factor was the only factor related to the adaptive component of perfectionism, and this relationship remained significant even after controlling for depression. Perfectionism was related to depression after controlling for the three anxiety factors; maladaptive perfectionism was positively related to depression while adaptive perfectionism was negatively related to depression. These findings indicate that there appears to be an aspect of perfectionism that is related to anxiety independent of depression and a separate aspect of perfectionism that is related to depression independent of anxiety.

The Sociotropy Autonomy Scale: Structure and Implications

Peter J. Bieling, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
St. Joseph's Hospital
50 Charlton Avenue East
Hamilton, Ontario, L8N 4A6
Canada

Abstract The Sociotropy Autonomy Scale (SAS), especially the Autonomy Scale, has demonstrated inconsistent results concerning its relationship to depression and psychopathology. We hypothesized that these inconsistent findings may be related to the factor structure of the SAS. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses of the SAS were conducted in two separate samples of psychiatric outpatients (n=1033, n=1034). The results revealed a two-factor solution for sociotropy: Preference For Affiliation and Fear of Criticism and Rejection. The second factor, Fear of Criticism and Rejection, had a stronger association with psychopathology than the first factor. The results also indicated a two-factor solution for autonomy: Sensitivity to Others' Control and Independent Goal Attainment. Although the Sensitivity to Others' Control factor had a positive correlation with psychopathology, the Independent Goal Attainment factor had a negative correlation with psychopathology. We speculate that Independent Goal Attainment may be associated with resilience or hardiness and functions as a buffer against stress. Implications for revising the SAS as well as employing these factors in future studies are discussed.

Accepted as of 1/10/00

Sociotropy, Autonomy, and the Interpersonal Model of Depression: An Integration

Peter J. Bieling, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
St. Joseph's Hospital
50 Charlton Avenue East
Hamilton, Ontario L8N 4A6
Canada

Abstract The interpersonal model of depression developed by Coyne proposes that depression leads to a number of negative interpersonal consequences. We hypothesized that underlying personality traits, particularly autonomy, moderate this relationship. Patients with depression (n=41) and normal controls (n=41) were assessed on sociotropy and autonomy and participated in a brief interactional task. Sociotropy was associated with a higher level of interpersonal relatedness during the task, whereas autonomy and depression were associated with orientation toward oneself. Depression and autonomy, particularly in combination, were related to fewer positive social behaviors and to partner rejection. Moreover, social behavior mediated the relationship between depression, autonomy, and rejection. The results suggest that the interpersonal model of depression could be made more specific with the inclusion of these personality factors. Clinical and theoretical implications of these results are discussed.

Dysfunctional Attitudes, Coping and Depression Among HIV Seropositive (HIV+) Men Who Have Sex with Men (MSM)

Frank J. Penedo, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
University of Miami
Coral Gables, FL 33134

Abstract Several studies have documented elevated levels of psychological distress among HIV seropositive (HIV+) symptomatic men who have sex with men (MSM). However, very little is known about the role of dysfunctional attitudes and coping strategies in maintaining and ameliorating distress levels in ways that can inform those developing psychosocial interventions for HIV+ persons. This study evaluated relations between dysfunctional attitudes and depression and examined the role of coping as a mediator of this relationship among 115 HIV+ symptomatic MSM. Higher Dysfunctional Attitude Scale scores were associated with more reported depressive symptoms. The use of adaptive coping strategies such as active coping was associated with lower depression, while use of maladaptive strategies such as denial was related to higher levels of depression. Both adaptive and maladaptive coping strategies mediated the relationship between dysfunctional attitudes and depression. Findings suggest that interventions aiming at reducing psychological distress in this population using cognitive restructuring and related techniques may achieve their effects by enhancing adaptive coping strategies on the one hand and reducing maladaptive strategies on the other.

Accepted as of 11/9/99

Towards an assessment of suitability of people with mental retardation for cognitive therapy

Dave Dagnan
Department of Clinical Psychology
West Cumberland Hospital
Whitehaven CUMBRIA CA28 8JG
United Kingdom

Abstract Forty people with mild mental retardation completed five tasks which assessed progressively their ability to identify emotions, link emotions to situations, and select either an emotion given a situation and evaluative belief, or an evaluative belief given a situation and emotion. Fewer people passed tasks including a belief than tasks assessing only an event-emotion link. Tasks involving a belief were more difficult if the belief and emotion were incongruent with the situation. We conclude that people with mild mental retardation may commonly have certain prerequisite skills to use cognitive therapy, yet many may require preparatory training to grasp the concept of cognitive mediation.

Sociotropic and Autonomous Personality Styles: Contributions to Chronic Life Stress

Denise R. Nelson
Department of Psychology
University of California, Los Angeles
405 Hilgard Avenue
Los Angeles, Ca 90095-1563

Abstract Sociotropy and autonomy are personality styles that are believed to moderate the effects of stressors on depression. This study tested the hypothesis that these styles may actually contribute to the occurrence of chronic stress. Specifically, we tested whether the personality styles are associated with increased chronic stress in the domain of vulnerability or in the cross domain. Studying 115 young women longitudinally over 18 months, results indicated that one facet of autonomy, need for control, is a risk factor for increases in chronic interpersonal stress. Sociotropy was a risk factor for increases in future chronic achievement stress when coupled with either poor problem solivng or low levels of perceived interpersonal competence. These results are consistent with Hammen's (1991) stress generation model which emphasizes how individuals play a role in the creation of their own stress. Results also suggest that those with highly sociotropic or autonomous personality styles are more likely to create stress in the domain that they value less.

Detecting Depressive Schemata in Vulnerable Individuals: Questionnaires versus Laboratory Tasks

Stephanie S. Rude
Department of Educational Psychology
University of Texas at Austin
George I. Sanchez Bldg 504
Austin, TX 78712-1296

Abstract Never-depressed and formerly-depressed adults completed questionnaires and laboratory measures of depressive thinking following either self- or external-focus instructions. Formerly-depressed participants were divided at the median based on the number of prior depressions experienced (FD<3 or FD>4). As predicted, differences in negative thinking as a function of depressive history were revealed by two of the laboratory tasks but not by the questionnaires. These differences emerged only in the comparison of never-depressed individuals with the subgroup of formerly depressed participants who had experienced four or more prior depressions. The focus instructions appeared not to be effective based on manipulation checks, and were not associated with significant effects on any of the dependent variables. Although these results do not address how self-focus might affect the measurement of depressive thinking, they do support the sensitivity of the laboratory tasks. Further, the findings suggest that thinking biases are most readily observed in individuals with relatively extensive histories of depression.

Accepted as of 9/29/99

Intolerance of Uncertainty and Worry: Investigating Specificity in a Nonclinical Sample

Michel J. Dugas
Department of Psychology
Concordia University
7141 Sherbrooke Street West
Montreal, Quebec, Canada H4B 1R6

Abstract The goal of this study was to explore the specificity of the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and worry in a nonclinical sample. Three hundred and forty-seven (347) university students completed measures of worry, obsession/compulsions and panic sensations. They also completed measures of process variables known to be associated with worry (intolerance of uncertainty), obsessions/compulsions (responsibility) and panic sensations (anxiety sensitivity). The results show that intolerance of uncertainty was highly related to worry, moderately related to obsessions/compul- sions and weakly related to panic sensations. Further, the relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and worry remained strong after shared variance with other study variables was removed. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding worry and preventing generalized anxiety disorder.

A Prospective Test of the Hopelessness Theory of Depression in Adolescence

Benjamin L. Hankin
University of Wisconsin-Madison
1202 West Johnson St.
Madison, WI 53706

Abstract Depression increases sharply during adolescence. This study prospectively investigated etiological predictions from the hopelessness theory of depression (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989) among a sample of middle to late adolescents to examine whether this theory can be applied to this important age group. High school students completed measures of attributional style, hopelessness, negative stressors, general depressive symptoms, and specific hypothesized hopelessness depressive (HD) symptoms at two times separated by five weeks. Results showed that the Attribu- tional Style X Stress interaction predicted increases in depressive symptoms from T1 to T2. Gender moderated this interaction for the BDI, such that the vulnerability-stress component held for boys, but not for girls. Consistent with the vulnerability-stress component of the theory, these effects held for the increase in HD symptoms for both boys and girls, but not non-HD symptoms. Mediational analyses did not provide consistent support for hopelessness as a mediator of this association. These results were mostly the same whether the internal, stable, and global dimensions versus only the stable, global dimensions of attributional style were used to operationalize cognitive vulnerability. Overall, results suggest that the cognitive vulnerability-stress aspect of the hopelessness theory can be applied to middle to late adolescence.

Accepted as of September 8, 1999

Distinguishing Dimensions of Anxiety and Depression

Wendy Heller
Department of Psychology
University of Illinois
603 E. Daniel Street
Champaign, IL 61820

Abstract Symptom covariation and lack of symptom specificity have proven to be complicating factors in research on the emotional, cognitive, and physiological characteristics of anxiety and depression. Numerous attempts have been made to investigate the unique and overlapping features of anxiety and depression. Of interest in the present study were potential distinctions among proposed types of anxiety and depression. A variety of self-report measures were administered to 783 college students. Correlational analyses and confirmatory factor analyses converged in suggesting that anxious arousal (somatic anxiety) and anxious apprehension (worry) represent distinct affective dimensions that can be distinguished from depression and negative affect.

Interpersonal and Achievement Orientation and Specific Stressors Predicting Depressive and Aggressive Symptoms in Children

Stephanie A. Little
Box 512 Peabody
Vanderbilt University
Nashville, TN 37203

Abstract This prospective study of 486 fifth and sixth grade children examined the contributions of interpersonal (Neediness and Connectedness) and achievement (Self-Criticism and Individualistic-Achievement) orientations, specific stressors, and their interactions to the prediction of depressive symptoms and level of anger/aggression. For both genders, Neediness directly predicted increases in depressive symptoms, whereas Connectedness interacted with social stressors to predict level of anger/aggression. There was a significant main effect of Connectedness for girls and a significant Connectedness x social stressors interaction for boys when predicting depressive symptoms. Neither achievement orientation factor directly predicted, nor interacted with achievement stressors to predict depressive symptoms. In contrast, the I-Achievement factor interacted with achievement stressors to predict level of anger/aggression for girls, but not boys. Results were consistent with the personality-event congruence hypothesis in that none of the vulnerability factors interacted with non-congruent stressors to predict either depressive symptoms or level of anger/ aggression.

Cognitive Errors in Youth with Anxiety Disorders: The Linkages between Negative Cognitive Errors and Anxious Symptoms

Wendy K. Silverman
Child and Family Psychosocial Research Center
Department of Psychology
Florida International University
University Park
Miami, FL 33199

Abstract This study examined the linkages between negative cognitive errors and anxiety in a sample of children and adolescents referred for anxiety problems (N = 251). The Children's Negative Cognitive Error Questionnaire was used to assess cognitive errors and several self-report measures of anxiety were used to examine the specific linkages between cognitive errors and different aspects of children's anxiety phenomenology. Results indicated that each of the measures of anxiety (i.e., trait anxiety, manifest anxiety, and anxiety sensitivity) were significantly related to each of the cognitive errors examined (i.e., catastrophizing, overgeneralization, personalizing and selective abstraction). The cognitive errors of catastrophizing, overgeneralization and personalizing were still correlated with trait anxiety, anxiety sensitivity, and manifest anxiety while controlling for children's level of depression. In addition, the correlation between selective abstraction and anxiety sensitivity was still evident while controlling for children's level of depression. Stepwise regression analyses indicated that overgeneralization was the strongest predictor of trait anxiety; catastrophizing and personalizing were the strongest predictors of anxiety sensitivity and manifest anxiety, and overgeneralization and selective abstraction were the strongest predictors of depression. Results also indicated that age moderated the relation between some types of cognitive errors and anxiety. The results are discussed with respect to the development of cognitive models of anxiety in youth, future research directions, and potential treatment implications.

Masked semantic priming of emotional information in subclinical depression

Kate M. Scott
Ministry of Health
P.O. Box 5013
Wellington
New Zealand

Abstract Most cognitive theories of depression (e.g., Beck, 1976; Ingram, 1984, Teasdale, 1988, Bower, 1981) assume that depressed individuals have an automatic processing bias for negative information (e.g., activation of negative material in memory). In contrast, Williams, Watts, MacLeod and Mathews (1988) proposed that depression is associated with a negative bias in controlled, rather than automatic, memory processes. Two experiments investigated whether there is an emotion-congruent bias in automatic (implicit) memory in subclinical depression. The first used a primed lexical decision task with briefly presented, masked primes (prime- target stimulus onset asynchrony, SOA, of 56 ms), including both repetition priming and semantic priming conditions. A depression-congruent priming bias was demonstrated in the semantic condition only. The second experiment examined the time course of the depression-congruent semantic priming bias using 56 ms and 2000 ms SOAs, and confirmed its occurrence in the 56 ms SOA condition. Results of both experiments are interpreted as consistent with a depression-congruent bias in automatic memory processes. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.

Communication About the Self and Partner in the Relationships of Dependents and Self-Critics

Lisa C. Vettese
Department of Psychology, Room 297 BSB
York University
4700 Keele Street
North York, Ontario, Canada
M3J 1P3

Abstract This study examined two depression-related individual difference variables, Dependency and Self-Criticism, in relation to communication about the self and a romantic partner. Sixty-five women varying on Dependency and Self-Criticism were assessed with their partners during an interaction in which they appraised their own and each others' performance on a previous conflict resolution task. Irrespective of current depression levels, highly self-critical women were found to emit higher proportions of negative statements about their own and their partners' performance. Partners responded, in turn, with more negative feedback about the self- critic. Highly dependent women were not distinguished with respect to their own behavior, but elicited less negative feedback from their partners. The roles of Dependency and Self-Criticism in the elucidation of different interpersonal cycles of depression are discussed.

Cognitive Bias in Panic Disorder: A Process Dissociation Approach to Automaticity

Richard J. McNally
Department of Psychology
Harvard University
33 Kirkland Street
Cambridge, MA 02138

Abstract We applied a variant of Jacoby's (1991) process dissociation procedure to parse the relative contributions of automatic and controlled processes to word stem completion performance involving threatening, positive, and neutral material in patients with panic disorder and healthy control participants. Contrary to prediction, processing of threatening (relative to nonthreatening) information in panic disorder was not disproportionately influenced by automatic processing. We found limited evidence, however, that panic patients exhibit a baseline bias for completing stems relevant to threat relative to nonthreat stems, perhaps indicating a proneness to engage in self-generated priming of threat material.

Negative mood, perceived self-efficacy, and personal standards in dysphoria: The effects of contextual cues on self-defeating patterns of cognition

Julie L. Tillema
Department of Psychology
University of Illinois at Chicago
1007 West Harrison Street
1009 Behavioral Sciences Building
Chicago, IL 60607

Abstract The present study investigated the effects of mood-related cues on the relation between performance standards and self-efficacy perceptions in dysphoric and nondysphoric individuals. Participants' personal standards and self-efficacy perceptions for various everyday activities were assessed. In the absence of mood-related cues, dysphoric participants, unlike nondysphorics, held standards that slightly exceeded their self-efficacy perceptions. A cue that highlighted the potential influence of mood on self-judgements eliminated the difference between dysphoric and nondysphoric participants. A cue that highlighted a potential external source of current mood magnified the group difference, leading dysphoric individuals to strongly exhibit a "self-defeating" cognitive pattern in which they adopted standards that far exceeded their self-efficacy levels. The cues also moderated the strength of relations between mood and personal standards. Current affect appears to play a role in the construction of standards and self-efficacy perceptions, and different affective processes may operate in the self-judgements of dysphoric versus nondysphoric individuals.

The Effect of Rumination as a Mediator of Elevated Anxiety Sensitivity in Major Depression

Brian Cox
PZ-430
Psyc Health Centre
Department of Psychiatry
University of Manitoba
771 Bannatyne Avenue
Winnipeg, Manitoba
Canada, R3E 3N4

Abstract Previous research has found anxiety sensitivity (AS) to be elevated in persons with major depression, and a facet of AS referred to as fear of cognitive dyscontrol or fear of mental incapacitation has been associated with severity of depressed mood. The present study sought to replicate and extend these findings in a sample of 142 outpatients with a primary diagnosis of Major Depressive Disorder. After statistically controlling for the higher-order effect of neuroticism, the AS fear of cognitive dyscontrol facet was found to be a significant predictor of severity of depressed mood. However, further analysis provided strong evidence that the effect of this AS facet is mediated by rumination over depressed mood. Results are discussed in the context of "depression sensitivity", a proposed cognitive structure that may underlie the cognitive process of rumination over depressed symptoms.

A Prospective Test of the Hopelessness Theory of Depression in Adolescence

Benjamin L. Hankin
1202 West Johnson Street
Madison, WI 53706

Abstract Depression increases sharply during adolescence. This study prospectively investigated etiological predictions from the hopelessness theory of depression (Abramson, Metalsky, & Alloy, 1989) among a sample of middle to late adolescents to examine whether this theory can be applied to this important age group. High school students completed measures of attributional style, hopelessness, negative stressors, general depressive symptoms, and specific hypothesized hopelessness depressive (HD) symptoms at two times separated by five weeks. Results showed that the Attributional Style X Stress interaction predicted increases in depressive symptoms from T1 to T2. Gender moderated this interaction for the BDI, such that the vulnerability-stress component held for boys, but not girls. Consistent with the vulnerability-stress component of the theory, these effects held for the increase in HD symptoms for both boys and girls, but not non-HD symptoms. Mediational analyses did not provide consistent support for hopelessness as a mediator of this association. These results were mostly the same whether the internal, stable, and global dimensions versus only the stable, global dimensions of attributional style were used to operationalize cognitive vulnerability. Overall, results suggest that the cognitive vulnerability-stress aspect of the hopelessness theory can be applied to middle to late adolescence.

Accepted as of 6/20/99

Memory Bias for Forbidden Food Cues in Restrained Eaters

Anne Lea Israeli
Department of Psychology
Dalhousie University
Halifax, Nova Scotia
CANADA B3H 4J1

Abstract Research on the cognitive patterns characteristic of women high in dietary restraint indicates an attentional bias favoring the early-stage selective processing of forbidden food words (e.g., Francis, Stewart, & Hounsell, 1997). The current study was conducted to determine whether highly restrained women also show a later stage memory bias for forbidden food words. Sixty-seven university females encoded a list of 30 words (15 forbidden food words, 15 animal-control words) presented in an incidental learning task. Participants were then asked to freely recall as many words as they could remember. Scores on the Restraint Scale (RS; Herman & Polivy, 1980) were used to classify participants as either high (N = 29) or low (N = 38) in dietary restraint. Contrary to prediction, high restraint women did not remember more forbidden food words than low restraint women. High restraint women did, however, remember fewer animal control words than low restraint women, suggesting a deficit in memory for material outside of the food-schema domain in restrained eaters relative to non-restrained eaters. Consistent with hypothesis, only women in the high restraint group remembered more forbidden food than animal control words, indicating a relative memory bias for forbidden food words only among restrained eaters. The results thus provide only partial support for Bemis-Vitousek and Hollon's (1990) theory that restrained eaters have cognitive structures (schema) which may support more elaborative encoding and/or greater memory accessibility of personally-relevant (i.e., forbidden food) information, and which may underlie self-reported food preoccupation among clinical and non-clinical restrained eaters.

Multidemensional Dichotomous Thinking Characterizes Borderline Personality Disorder

Arnoud Arntz
Department of Medical, Clinical and Experimental Psychology
University of Maastricht
P.O. Box 616
NL-6200 MD Maastricht
The Netherlands

Abstract This study investigated whether dichotomous thinking is characteristic of Boderline Personality Disorder (BPD). BPD patients (n = 16), control patients with Cluster-C personality disorder (PD; n = 12) and normal controls (n = 15) evaluated personalities from film clips in a structured response format. Film clips were presented with emotional themes, that were hypothesized to be either specific or nonspecific for borderline pathology, and with neutral themes. Dichotomous thinking was operationalized as the extremity of evaluations on a list of Visual Analogue Scales (VASs) with bipolar trait descriptions. BPD patients made more extreme evaluations (dichotomous thinking) on BPD-specific, but not control, film clips than both control groups. Extreme evaluations of BPD patients were not either "all good" or "all bad", indicating that BPD patients do not engage in unidimensional good-bad thinking (splitting), but are capable of viewing others in mixed, though extreme, terms (multidimensional dichotomous thinking).

Worry and Rumination: Repetitive Thought as a Concomitant and Predictor of Negative Mood

Suzanne C. Segerstrom
Department of Psychology
115 Kastle Hall
University of Kentucky
Lexington, KY 40506-0044

Abstract Worry and depressive rumination have both been described as unproductive, repetitive thought which contributes to anxiety or depression, respectively. It was hypothesized repetitive thought, rather than its specific forms, is a general concomitant of negative mood. Study 1 was a cross-sectional test of the hypothesis. Repetitive thought was positively correlated with anxiety and depression in students (n = 110). In patients (n = 40), repetitive thought was positively correlated with anxiety and depression, and rumination was also specifically correlated with depression. Study 2 was a prospective test of the hypothesis. In students (n = 90), there were significant cross-sectional relationships between repetitive thought and both anxiety and depression. In addition, repetitive thought at least partially predicted maintenance of anxious symptoms. Phenomena such as goal interruption, failures of emotional processing, and information processing may lead to repetitive thought which increases negative mood states, including both anxiety and depression.

An Application of Beck's Cognitive Therapy to General Anger Reduction

Jerry L. Deffenbacher
Department of Psychology
Colorado State University
Fort Collins, Colorado 80523-1876

Abstract Beck's cognitive therapy (CT) was compared to a no treatment control in the reduction of anger in college students. CT lowered trait anger, anger reactivity to many potential provocations, anger in the individual's most angering ongoing situation, daily anger, anger-related physiological arousal, anger suppression, and outward negative expression. CT also enhanced positive forms of anger expression. Treatment effect sizes were medium to large with many being quite large, and significantly more CT participants met an index of clinically significant change. Moreover, CT lowered trait anxiety and depression. Reductions of anger and trait anxiety were maintained at 15-month follow-up. CT was judged an effective, promising treatment for anger reduction.

Self-Criticism and Dependency in Depressed Patients Treated with Cognitive Therapy or Pharmacotherapy

Neil A. Rector
Anxiety Disorders Clinic
Mood and Anxiety Program
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health - Clarke Division
250 College Street
Toronto, Ontario, Canada, M5T 1R8

Abstract The current study aimed to assess the role of self-criticism and dependency in response to cognitive therapy (CT) or pharmacotherapy (PT). It was hypothesized that: (a) self- criticism would moderate treatment outcome to CT and PT, and (b) the degree of change in self-criticism, and the relationship of this change to treatment response, would be greater for patients treated with CT than for those treated with PT. A sample of outpatients with unipolar major depression received either CT (n = 51) or PT (n = 58). Neither pre-treatment self-criticism and dependency scores nor self-criticism and dependency change scores were found to predict response to PT. Treatment response to CT, however, was associated with pre-treatment self-criticism scores and pre- and post self-criticism change scores. Although highly self-critical patients were more likely to have a poor response to CT, the degree to which self-criticism was successfully reduced in treatment was shown to be the best predictor of treatment response to CT.

Cognitive Inflexibility Among Ruminators and Nonruminators

Robert N. Davis
Department of Psychology
University of Houston
Houston, TX 77204-5341

Abstract Dysphoric people who ruminate about their negative mood experience longer and more intense depressive episodes, yet often persist in ruminating. This study investigated whether a ruminative coping style would be related to a cognitive style marked by perseveration and inflexibility. We examined the performance of ruminators and nonruminators on the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), a measure of cognitive flexibility, and tasks measuring related cognitive processes. Ruminators committed significantly more perseverative errors and failed to maintain set significantly more often than nonmuminators on the WCST. On an advanced section of the WCST designed for this study, male ruminators exhibited significanly greater inflexibility than male nonruminators. These effects could not be attributed to differences in general intelligence or the presence of depressed mood. Results suggest that rumination may be characterized by, and perhaps prolonged by, an inflexible cognitive style.

Future-Event Schemas: Automaticity and Rumination in Major Depression

Susan M. Andersen
Department of Psychology
New York University
6 Washington Place, 4th Floor
New York, NY 10003

Abstract We examined the proposition that individuals with major depression make predictions about future events relatively automatically and pessimistically, reflecting use of a future- event schema, while they also ruminate about the future. Depressed participants and nondepressed controls indicated whether or not various positive and negative future events would happen to them or to an average other - either under a concurrent attentional load or no such load - while their response latencies were asessed. As hypothesized, depressives showed relatively greater automaticity in their predictions than did nondepressives, and a lack of optimism as well. More specifically, depressives showed a smaller increase in response latency due to the introduction of the attentional load than did nondepressives, suggesting relatively greater processing efficiency, and they also predicted reliably fewer positive events. Indeed, depressives also reported ruminating more about the future based on recent distressing, life event. Overall, the results extend research on future-event schemas and automaticity (Anderson, Spielman, & Bargh, 1992) from moderate to major depression and establish a link with future-event rumination.

Which social problem solving components buffer depression in adolescent girls?

Alice A. Frye
Department of Psychology
202 Psychology Building
Kilgo Circle
Emory University

Abstract Life stress is associated with depression (e.g., Beck & Rosenberg, 1986; Billings & Moos, 1985), although it accounts for only about 10 percent of the variance (Christensen, 1981). Social problem solving has been found to be a moderator of the stress-depression relationsip in adults and children (Nezu, 1986; Goodman, Gravitt & Kaslow, 1995). This study extends research in this area by testing whether social problem solving moderates the relationship between stress and depression amongst adolescent girls and whether the moderating role of social problem solving is specific to certain domains of social problem solving. The hypothesized role of specific social problem solving deficits in the association between stress and depressive symptomatology was supported.

The Hopelessness Theory of Depression: A Test of the Diathesis-Stress Component in the Interpersonal and Achievement Domains

John R. Z. Abela
Department of Psychology
University of Pennsylvania
3815 Walnut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19104-6196

Abstract Two prospective studies tested the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory in the interpersonal and achievement domains. In Study 1, 149 high school seniors applying to the University of Pennsylvania completed measures of mood and 3 cognitive vulnerability factors (cognitive diathesis about self, consequences, and causes) 1 - 8 weeks before receiving their admissions decision (Time 1). They also completed measures of mood shortly after they received their admissions decision (Time 2) and three days later (Time 3). In Study 2, 77 college students rushing fraternities/sororities completed similar measures 1 - 8 weeks before rush (Time 1), shortly after they received their rush outcome (Time 2) and three days after receiving their rush outcome (Time 3). Consistent with the diathesis-stress component of the hopelessness theory, in both studies, all three vulnerability factors predicted increases in depressed mood immediately following a negative outcome (Time 2). None of these factors, however, predicted enduring depressed mood after a negative outcome (Time 3).

The Role of Hope in Cognitive Behavior Therapies

C. R. Snyder
305 Fraser Hall
Graduate Training Program in Clinical Psychology
Department of Psychology
The University of Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas 66045-2462

Abstract A cognitive, two-component model of hope proposed by Snyder and colleagues (1991) is reviewed. Hope is defined as the perceived capability to (1) derive pathways to desired goals, and (2) motivate oneself via agentic thinking to initiate and sustain movement along those pathways. The roles of these pahtways and agency components of hope theory are described, along with similarities and differences relative to other motivational and emotional theories (e.g., optimism, self-efficacy, self-esteem,and problem-solving). The goal focus, agentic thought,and pathways thought of hope theory are used as a framework for understanding the adaptive processes in the various phases of cognitive behavior therapies, including relapse prevention. Expanding on Frank's (1961, 1968, 1975) earlier espousal of the importance of hope in successful psychotherapy, it is conclued that the more recent hope theory (Snyder, 1994) offers a valuable overarching framework for understanding the common factors in behavior therapies.

Perceived Social Support and Mental Retardation: A Social-Cognitive Approach

Betsey A. Benson
The Nisonger Center UAP
The Ohio State University
1581 Dodd Drive
Columbus, OH 43210

Abstract Adults with mental retardation tend to have difficulty interpreting social situations as well as the emotions of others. Predictions from a social-cognitive model of perceived social support were tested with 50 adults with mild mental retardation. Videotaped scenes portraying three levels of support were presented. The ratings of support perceptions provided by adults with mental retardation were contrasted with those of 40 staff working in the field of mental retardation and 22 community members. As hypothesized, social support and loneliness predicted perceptions of support of individuals with mental retardation, after controlling for depressed mood and receptive language ability. Individuals with mental retardation rated the videotaped interactions as more supportive than did staff and community members. This is the first study to address the contribution of cognitive level to perceived social support. Findings suggest that for those individuals with cognitive deficits, as with other groups, one's interpretations of social support are based, in part, on one's prior conceptions about social support.

Relation of Rumination and Distraction with Neuroticism and Extraversion in a Sample of Patients with Major Depression

R. Michael Bagby
Section on Personality and Psychopathology
Centre for Addiction and Mental Health
Clarke Division
250 College Street
Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5T 1R8

Abstract The relationship between rumination and distraction and Neuroticism (N) and Extraversion (E) was examined in a sample of patients with major depression. Factor analysis of the Response Style Questionnaire produced three factors - one corresponding to distraction and two related to rumination (symptom-focused rumination and self-focused rumination). Neither of the rumination factors, nor N, were correlated with patient and clinical variables hypothesized to be associated with them. E and distraction were associated with treatment outcome. Although the association between E and treatment outcome was preserved after controlling for distraction, the association between distraction and clinical outcome did not hold after controlling for E.

On-line and a posteriori covariation in panic-prone individuals: Effects of a high contingency of shocks following fear-irrelevant stimuli

Dr. P. Pauli
Institute of Medical Psychology and Behavioral Neurobiology
University of Tuebingen
Gartenstr. 29
72074 Tuebingen
Germany

Abstract This study replicates previous findings of a covariation bias in high-fear (panic-prone) individuals. High-fear but not low-fear participants markedly overestimated the contingency between fear-relevant stimuli (FR, emergency situations) and an aversive outcome (electric shock) as long as contingencies were objectively random. However, the experience of a high contingency of shocks following fear-irrelevant (FI) stimuli (83%) together with a low contingency of shocks following FR stimuli (17%) abolished the group difference. Return of contingencies to random led to comparable bias-free covariation estimates in both high- and low-fear participants. In a previous study (Pauli, Montoya, & Martz, 1996), a high contingency of shocks following FR stimuli induced a covariation bias, even in low-fear participants. The present findings suggest that the experience of high contingency between FI stimuli and shock is less likely to induce a covariation bias than the same high contingency between FR stimuli and shock.

Enhancing and Disrupting Cooperative Behavior in Couples: Effects of Dependency and Self-Criticism following Favourable and Unfavourable Performance Feedback

Darcy A. Santor, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
Dalhousie University
Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4J1

Abstract Considerable research has examined the impact of unfavorable feedback on mood and behavior in individuals; however, relatively little research has investigated how favorable and unfavorable feedback may enhance or disrupt cooperative behavior in romantic relationships. The present study examined how favorable and unfavorable performance feedback influenced both mood and interpersonal behavior on a task requiring the participation of both members of a dating-couple. In part one of the protocol, dating couples (N = 36 couples) watched short videotaped vignettes of people interacting, after which they received bogus performance feedback concerning the accuracy of their judgements about the vignettes. In part two, couples were required to complete a second series of vignettes after being told that they performed favorably or unfavorably in comparison to peer couples. Results showed that the effects of feedback were moderated by dependency and self-criticism, beyond effects due to baseline levels of behavior or due to levels of partner behavior following favourable and unfavourable feedback, that dependency predicted an increase in the frequency of suggestions and agreeable coments following unfavorable feedback, whereas self-criticism predicted a decrease in the frequencies of suggestions and agreeable comments and an increase in the frequency of blaming. Consistent with the proposed vulnerability model, dependency and self-criticism had little effect on cooperative behavior following favorable feedback.

Accepted as of 1/6/99

Psychometric properties of the long and short versions of the Young Schema Questionnaire: Core beliefs among bulimic and comparison women

Glenn Waller
Department of Psychology
University of Southampton
Southampton, SO17 1BJ, United Kingdom

Abstact Young's (1994) Schema Questionnaire is a potentially valuable clinical and research tool for the investigation of core beliefs, and has been well validated. However, at 205 items it is comparatively unwieldy. A briefer, 75-item version has recently been produced (Young, 1998), but lacks the psychometric validation that would demonstrate its utility relative to the longer version. The present study aimed to determine whether the long and short versions of the Schema Questionnaire have comparable psychometric properties among a clinical group of bulimics and a comparison group. The two forms had similar levels of internal consistency, parallel forms reliability and discriminant validity, and their levels of clinical utility were broadly comparable. These findings support the use of the more convenient 75-item version of this questionnaire in clinical and research settings, since its psychometric properties are similar to those of the long version. However, these results require replication with other clinical groups.

Interaction of cognitive avoidance coping and stress in predicting depression and anxiety: Gender differences

Janice A. Blalock, Ph.D.
Department of Psychiatry
University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston
Route 1355
Galveston, TX 77555-1355

Abstact This study investigated: 1) the moderating effects of gender and cognitive avoidance coping on the negative life events-depressive/anxious symptom relationship; and 2) the validity of the cognitive avoidance coping construct. One hundred and seventy-nine men and women completed the Coping Responses Inventory (CRI), Negative Life Events Questionnaire, and the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories at Time 1 and, three weeks later, at Time 2. A confirmatory factor analysis of the four CRI Avoidant Coping subscales revealed that a two-factor model, comprised of Cognitive and Behavioral Avoidance Coping, was superior to the one-factor model comprised of Avoidant Coping. Multiple regression analyses revealed that high negative life event scores were predictive of significant increases in symptoms among females who endorsed greater use of cognitive avoidance coping, but not among males. Behavioral avoidance coping was unrelated to changes in depressive and anxious symptoms.

Group versus individual cognitive-behavioral treatment for youth with anxiety disorders: A randomized clinical trial

Philip C. Kendall, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
Weiss Hall
Temple University
Philadelphia, PA 19122

Abstact Children (aged 8-14) with anxiety disorders were randomly assigned to cognitive- behavioral individual treatment, cognitive-behavioral group treatment, or a wait-list control. Treatment outcome was evaluated using diagnostic status, child self-reports, and parent- and teacher-reports. Analyses of diagnostic status revealed that significantly more treated children (73% individual, 50% group) than wait-list children (8%) did not meet diagnostic criteria for their primary anxiety disorder at posttreatment. Other dependent measures demonstrated the superiority of both treatment conditions compared to the wait-list condition. However, a child-report of anxious distress demonstrated only the individual treatment to effect significant improvement. Measures of social functioning failied to discriminate among conditions. Analyses of clinical significance revealed that notable proportions of treated cases were returned to non-deviant limits at posttreatment. Treatment gains were maintained at a three-month follow-up.

Hostility and hope in combat-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A look back at combat as compared to today

J. Jeffrey Crowson, Jr., Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
210 McAlester Hall
University of Missouri-Columbia
Columbia, MO 65211

Abstact Thirty-seven male veterans with combat-related PTSD completed measures of hostile automatic thoughts, hope, and positive and negative affect. Responses to the items of each measure were presented in two formats: (a) the veteran's feelings today; and (b) (on a separate form) how he felt while in combat. Veterans reported significantly higher levels of hostility and negative affect in combat as opposed to today. Contrary to predictions, high levels of both positive affect and automatic positive thoughts also were reported in combat relative to today. Hope levels varied primarily as a function of being employed rather than unemployed. The implications and limitations of this methodology and these findings for combat veterans and other groups are discussed.

Predicting symptom return from rates of symptom reduction in cognitive-behavior therapy for depression

Darcy A. Santor, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
Dalhousie University
Halifax, Nova Scotia, B3H 4J1

Abstact Numerous studies have examined rates of symptom reduction and symptom return across treatment modalities; however, few studies have investigated the degree to which rates of symptom reduction during treatment is related to symptom return following treatment. We examined the relation between symptom return 3 and 6 months after completing treatment and several measures of symptom reduction during treatment, including amount of symptom reduction early in treatment, rates of symptom reduction over different phases of treatment, as well as the number of weeks in which individuals were asymptomatic. different phases of treatment, as well as the number of weeks in which individuals were asymptomatic. Rate of symptom reduction in the first 10 weeks of treatment was a stronger predictor of symptom return at 3 and 6 months after treatment than (a) pretreatment depressive severity, (b) symptom reduction after the first two sessions of treatment, (c) symptom reduction over all 20 weeks of treatment, and (d) number of weeks in which individuals were asymptomatic. Results also showed that severity of depressive thoughts at pretreatment was one of the only predictors of rate of symptom reduction during treatment and that estimating rates of symptom reduction simply by summing weekly BDI scores was as efficient at predicting symptom return as estimating rate of symptom reduction with more complex hierarchical linear regression models. Results of this research provide researchers and clinicians with new ways of measuring symptom reduction as well as the means of identifying individuals, before treatment has ended, who are likely to experience symptom return.

Cognitive assumptions and long term distress in survivors of childhood abuse, parental alcoholsim, and dysfunctional family environments

Stephanie L. Harter
Psychology Department
Box 42051
Texas Tech University
Lubbock, TX 79409-2051

Abstact Covariance structure modeling was used to test unique contributions of childhood abuse, parental alcoholism, and dysfunctional family envioronment to symptom distress and to cognitive assumptions regarding a worthy self, benevolent world, meaningful world, and spiritual world in college students (N = 651). Abuse history was related to adult symptom distress, while a dysfunctional family environment was related to negative assumptions concerning the self and the benevolence of the world. When included in the model with abuse history, family environment, gender, and other characteristics of the family of origin, parental alcoholism did not appear causally related to symptom distress or to cognitive assumptions. Cognitive assumptions were initially presumed to be mediators of symptom distress. Sequential refinement of the model through specification procedures suggested that more negative self assumptions may be a result, rather than a mediator, of symptom distress. Other assumptions were not related to symptom distress in the model.

Effects of naturalistic benzodiazepine use on selective attention to threat cues among anxiety disorder patients

Sherry H. Stewart
Clinical Psychology Program
Department of Psychology
Dalhousie University
Life Sciences Centre
1355 Oxford Street
Hallifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4J1

Abstact The present study examined the effects of naturalistic benzodiazepine (BZ) use on selective attention to threat cues in 50 patients diagnosed with anxiety disorders, according to DSM-IV (APA, 1994) criteria. Parents provided information on their BZ use histories, demographics, and severity of anxiety symptomatology, and completed a computerized Stroop task involving color-naming of social threat, physical threat, and matched no-threat control words. Patients were selected to fill two age-, gender-, and diagnosis-matched groups based on self-reported BZ use histories: 25 current BZ users versus 25 medication non-using controls. Planned comparisons were conducted to determine whether BZ use groups differed in degree of selective attention to either the physical and/or social threat stimuli, or overall. Even with BZ use group differences in anxiety severity covaried out, the BZ users demonstrated significantly greater selective attention to threat than the medication non-users, particularly in the case of physical threat stimuli. These findings are consistent with Westra and Stewart's (1998) suggestion that BZ use may increase preferential attention to physical threat cues, since BZs are often taken on an "as needed" (p.r.n.) basis. This 'p.r.n. enhancement' interpretation was further supported through the finding of a significant positive correlation between frequency of p.r.n. use of BZs and degree of physical threat-related interference on the Stroop among the BZ users group. Theoretical explanations and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.

Worry, procrastination, and perfectionism: Differentiating amount of worry, pathological worry, anxiety, and depression

Joachim Stober
University of Greifswald
Department of Psychology
Franz-Mehring-Str. 47
D-17487 Greifswald, Germany

Abstact This study investigates features that differentiate worry from somatic anxiety and depression. Theoretical models of the worry process suggest that worry is closely related to procrastination. In addition, research on worry and elevated evidence requirements proposes a relationship between worry and perfectionism. Perfectionism, however, is multidimensional in nature. Moreover, previous research has linked procrastination and perfectionism mainly to anxiety and depression. Therefore, the relationship between worry, procrastination, and dimensions of perfectionism was investigated in a sample of 180 students, while controlling for anxiety and depression. Results show that worry had substantial correlations with procrastination and perfectionism, particularly with perfectionist concern over mistakes and doubts. Moreover, worry was related to parental criticism and expectations, but unrelated to excessively high personal standards. Instead, high-worriers reported to lower standards under stress. Partial correlations indicated that these correlations were specific for amount of worry, thus differentiating amount of worry, pathological worry, anxiety, and depression.

Self-focused attention and social anxiety in social phobics and normal controls

Sheila R. Woody
Department of Psychology
Yale University
P.O. Box 208205
New Haven, CT 06520-8205

Abstact Self-focused attention has been demonstrated to influence and be influenced by situational social anxiety in clients with social phobia, but the mechanisms of this relationship have yet to be established. This study examines the degree to which self-focus exacerbates anxiety and impairs social performance in normal controls as well as social phobics. In addition, the role of fear of negative evaluation as a moderator of this relationship is examined. Results supported the hypothesis of a fuctional role of self-focused attention in anxiety but not social performance, and this relationship held true for participants in the normal control group as well as the social phobia group. Fear of negative evaluation was surprisingly not a factor in this relationship. These results are discussed in a framework of shifting attributions for social effectiveness based on the shift in perspective engendered by self-focused attention.

Differentiating anxious and depressive self-statements: Combined factor structure of the Anxious Self-Statements Questionnaire and the Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-Revised

Richard G. Heimberg
Department of Psychology
Temple University
Weiss Hall
1701 N. 13th Street
Philadelphia, PA 19122-6085

Abstact Cognitive models of negative emotion suggest that depression and anxiety are associated with different cognitive features. However, distinguishing anxious from depressive self-talk is difficult because of the overlap between anxiety and depression. The Automatic Thoughts Questionnaire-Revised was developed to assess self-statements related to depression and the Anxious Self-Statement Questionnaire to assess self-statements related to anxiety. However, confirmatory factor analyses of the pooled items from both measures suggested that this implicit two-factor model did not fit the data. Instead, an exploratory common factor analysis yielded four orthogonal factors: self-statements reflecting depression/hopelessness, self-statements reflecting one's inability to cope, self-statements reflecting anxiety/uncertainty about the future, and positive affect self-statements. In an exploratory hierarchical factor analysis, the first three factors loaded onto a single higher order factor while positive affect self-statements did not. Attempts to predict depression and trait anxiety on the basis of these factor scores produced complex results, at least potentially due to the relative impurity of the criterion measures. These results provide evidence for the differentiation of anxious and depressive self-talk as well as for the common ground shared by these aspects of internal dialogue. They also support the future study of the factors from the ATQ-R and ASSQ in relation to more construct-pure measures of anxiety and depression.

Cognitive vulnerability for depression: Deployment of attention as a function of history of depression and current mood state

Scott B. McCabe
Department of Psychology
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, CANADA, N2L 3G1

Abstact Examined the performance of 40 previously depressed and 40 never depressed women on a computerized deployment-of-attention task. Half of the subjects completed the task in a neutral mood condition, while the others completed the task after undergoing a sad mood induction procedure. Results indicated that, for trait-like word stimuli, the previously depressed subjects who were in the sad mood condition performed the task in an unbiased fashion, attending equally to positive-, negative-, and neutral-content stimuli. In contrast, previously depressed subjects in the neutral condition and never depressed subjects in both mood conditions, with one exception, directed their attention away from negative stimuli. This pattern of results suggests that nonvulnerable inidividuals and vulnerable individuals in a neutral mood exhibit a "protective" bias in their attentional functioning, which may contribute to their ability to maintain their nondepressed status. In contrast, vulnerable individuals in a sad mood appear to lose this protective bias, and this may be one pathway that contributes to their vulnerability to develop depression. These results are discussed in the context of cognitive theory and mood activation hypotheses of vulnerability for depression.

Accepted as of 11/6/98

Gender differences in patients with panic disorder: Evaluating cognitive mediation of phobic avoidance

Norman B. Schmidt
The Ohio State University
Department of Psychology
216 Townshend Hall
1885 Neil Avenue Mall
Columbus, Ohio 43210-1222

Abstract Epidemiological reports have consistently found that females are at great er risk for the development of panic disorder, in particular, when it is accompanied by agoraphobia. Although gender appears to be a well-establis hed risk factor for the development of phobic avoidance, the mechanisms t hat account for this increased risk have yet to be delineated. Often, gen der differences in phobic avoidance are speculated to arise from differen ces in courage (e.g., men are expected to be brave and endure fear-provok ing situations). The present study evaluated this popular but unsubstanti ated theory and advanced another hypothesis. It was proposed that differe nces in panic and arousal-related cognitions may account for gender diffe rences in phobic avoidance. Male (n = 27) and female (n = 61) patient s meeting DSM-IV criteria for panic disorder with or without agoraphobia were evaluated. Data did not support gender differences in courage. Nor w ere these indices related to phobic avoidance. In contrast, there were si gnificant gender differences in several cognitive domains. Moreover, anxi ety sensitivity and panic-related appraisals mediated gender differences in phobic avoidance.

The assessment of dispositional vigilance and cognitive avoidance: Factor ial structure, psychometric properties, and validity of the Mainz Coping Inventory

Heinz Walter Krohne
Psychologisches Institut
Johannes Gutenberg-Universitat Mainz
D-55099 Mainz, Germany

Abstract This article reports the construction and empirical evaluation of the Eng lish adaptation of the Mainz Coping Inventory (MCI). The MCI, which is ba sed on the model of coping modes (Krohne, 1993), is organized as a stimul us-response inventory and contains two subtests. Eight fictitious situati ons are presented to the participants. Four of these situations represent physical threat (subtest MCI-P) and four ego-threat (subtest MCI-E). Eac h situation is conjoined with five vigilant and five cognitive avoidant c oping strategies, thus allowing the separate assessment of the coping dis positions vigilance and cognitive avoidance. Analyses concerning appraisa ls of the threat situations, factorials structure and psychometric proper ties of the MCI as well as convergent and discriminant associations with coping and affect variables are presented. Results of the analyses indica te that the MCI is a reliable and valid measure of two central coping dim ensions.

Appraisals of blame in adjustment in conjugal bereavement

Nigel P. Field
Pacific Graduate School of Psychology
935 East Meadow Drive
Palo Alto, CA 94303

Abstract Bereaved individuals who had lost a spouse through death, on average 7.2 months previously, engaged in an "empty-chair" monologue task in which th ey imagined that they had one last opportunity to speak to their deceased spouse. The verbal content of their monologue speech was rated by judges on the appraisal categories deceased as blameworthy and self as blamewor thy. As predicted, deceased as blameworthy was associated with greater an ger toward the deceased whereas self as blameworthy was related to greate r guilt on a repeated measure assessing affective experience when thinkin g about the deceased in daily life. Additionally, these appraisal categor ies were positively correlated with the measures of symptomatic distress; specifically, deceased as blameworthy was related to general psychologic al symptoms whereas self as blameworthy correlated with grief-specific sy mptoms. Furthermore, deceased as blameworthy was predictive of 14 months post-loss general psychological distress symptoms when statistically cont rolling for these symptoms at the time of monologue in a hierarchical reg ression analysis, thus providing support for its mediating role in later adjustment. The implications of the findings for the assessment of grief outcome and directions for future research are discussed.

Results of randomized controlled trials of cognitive therapy for depressi on generalize to private practice

Jacqueline B. Persons
Center for Cognitive Therapy
5435 College Avenue
Oakland, CA 94618

Abstract We compared outcomes of 45 depressed patients treated in private practice with cognitive therapy or with cognitive therapy plus pharmacotherapy to outcomes of patients receiving those treatments in two randomized contro lled trials. Private practice and research samples differed considerably, with private practice patients having more psychiatric and medical comor bidities and a greater range of initial depression severity. Treatment in private practice and research settings also differed, with private pract ice treatment conducted in a more flexible manner using an idiographic, f ormulation-driven approach. As predicted, private practice patients showe d statistically significant reductions in depressive symptomatology over the course of treatment, and at post-treatment, Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) scores of patients treated in private practice and research settin gs were not statistically significantly different. Clinical significance of outcomes was also comparable in the clinical and research samples. Of the variables measuring demographic, illness and treatment factors, only pre-treatment BDI score predicted post-treatment BDI score in the private practice sample.

Perceptions of depression among never-depressed and recovered-depressed p eople

David A. F. Haaga
Department of Psychology
Asbury Building
American University
Washington, DC 20016-8062

Abstract We assessed perceptions of the impact of depression among two groups of c urrently non-depressed adults (Beck Depression Inventory score < 9). The recovered depressed participants (RD) (n 25) had a history of major d epressive disorder but had been recovered for at least two months since t he most recent depressive episode. Never depressed participants (ND) (n 25) had no history of major depressive disorder. Participants completed the Self Appraisal Questionnaire (Coyne & Calarco, 1995) as an assessment of beliefs about the experience of having been depressed. RDs rated depr ession as having more severe after-effects than did the NDs. They reporte d feeling more: loss of energy, feeling of being a burden on others, need to hide depression symptoms, strength drawn from depression, need to mai ntain a balance in life, fear of relationships, fear of taking risks, fea r of recurrence of depression, and sense of stigma. These results replica ted the findings of Coyne and Calarco (1995) and extended them to a more fully recovered population. These perceptions are important to understand because a person's ideas about depression may influence treatment outcom e and susceptibility to future episodes.

Is cognitive therapy suitable for treating individuals with personality d ysfunction?

Dr. T. M. Vallis
Department of Psychology
Queen Elizabeth II Health Sciences Centre
1278 Tower Road
Hallifax, Nova Scotia CANADA B3H 2Y9

Abstract In this study the impact of personality dysfunction on suitability for co gnitive therapy was empirically examined. Thirty-six mental health outpat ients were evaluated with regard to the extent of personality dysfunction and suitability for short-term cognitive therapy. All participants were interviewed by a psychiatrist, using the Personality Disorders Examinatio n (PDE) to assess personality dysfunction, and by a psychologist, using t he Suitability for Short-Term Cognitive Therapy Scale (SSCT) to assess co gnitive therapy suitability. Participants also completed the Millon Clini cal Multiaxial Inventory-Revised (MCMI-II) to provide a multi-method asse ssment of personality dysfunction. Analysis of the correlations between s uitability for cognitive therapy and personality dysfunction, for both th e independent-interviewer rated method (the PDE) and the self-report meth od (MCMI-II) indicated that greater dysfunction was significantly associa ted with poorer suitability for cognitive therapy. Results were most clea r for the general therapy subscale of the SSCT, relative to the cognitive therapy specific subscale. A tentative item analysis of the SSCT scale i ndicated that alliance potential (both in-session and out-of-session rati ngs), security operations, chronicity, personal responsibility for change and compatibility with the cognitive therapy rationale were most strongl y affected (negatively) by personality dysfunction. These data suggest th at, while personality dysfunction impacts suitability, cognitive therapy may not be any more contra-indicated than any other form of psychotherapy 2E Recent theoretical developments within cognitive therapy to address p ersonality dysfunction specifically also support the use of cognitive the rapy with this population. Suggestions for specific process and procedura l modifications to cognitive therapy when working with personality dysfun ction that address the factors that contribute to poor suitability are ou tlined.

Cognitions in obese binge eaters and obese non-binge eaters

Helga Nauta
Maastricht University
Department of Health Education
P.O. Box 616
6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlands

Abstract The aim of the present study was to examine the frequency and content of several cognitions (negative self-schemas and weight, shape, and eating f ocused cognitions) in obese binge eaters and obese non-binge eaters. We u sed a structured clinical interview to detect differences in cognitions. The majority of obese binge eaters mentioned negative self-schemas that c ould be characterized as negative generalizations about the self combined with weight, shape, or eating concerns, whereas the majority of obese no n-binge eaters mentioned weight, shape, and eating concerns which were no t combined with negative generalizations about the self. Participants wit h negative self schemas, irrespective of binge category, were more depres sed and had lower self-esteem than the other participants. Finally, with respect to the content analyses of negative self-schemas, we found that b oth groups most often mentioned themes such as rejection, unworthiness an d lack of willpower. However, obese non-binge eaters mentioned more self- schemas regarding lack of willpower, whereas obese binge eaters were more preoccupied with rejection and unworthiness. Implications for future wor k are discussed, including how cognitive techniques focusing on negative self-schemas might improve treatment for obesity.

Values and their relationship to HIV/AIDS risk behavior among late adoles cent and young adult college students

Gerald C. Davison
Department of Psychology
University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089-1061

Abstract It is assumed that values are strong controlling variables that influence behavior in enduring and significant ways. The value priorities of those reporting higher-risk sexual behavior were hypothesized to differ signif icantly from those reporting lower-risk behavior. The Rokeach Value Surve y and a sexual behavior questionnaire were administered to 761 late adole scent and young college students. Higher-risk respondents reported signif icantly different value priorities than lower-risk respondents, including greater importance accorded to the value An Exciting Life, and lesser im portance attached to the values Self-Controlled, Helpful, Honest, Loving, Equality, and A World at Peace. Factor analyses revealed that risky sexu al behavior was inversely related to certain clusters of values associate d with caution and concern-for-others. Women attached greater importance to such values as Helpful, Equality, Loving, Honest, Health, Responsible, and Wisdom. Values predicted significant amounts of variance in risky se xual behaviors. Values differences suggested that higher-risk behavior ma y be positively associated with risk-taking, impulsivity, and sensation-s eeking, and negatively associated with other-oriented reasoning (i.e., co ncern for others). The value self-confrontation procedure is discussed as a potential HIV/AIDS prevention strategy.

Anxiety in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: the role of illness specific catastrophic thoughts

Myra Cooper
Isis Education Centre
Warneford Hospital
Oxford, OX3 7JX, UK

Abstract The development of a self-report measure designed to assess illness specific catastrophic thoughts in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is described. The measure is then used to test hypotheses about the relationship between catastrophic thoughts and anxiety in COPD. Preliminary findings suggest that the measure, the Interpretation of Breathing Problems Questionnaire (IBPQ), has good psychometric properties. Tests of specific hypotheses indicated that more severe catastrophic thoughts were associated with higher levels of anxiety. Catastrophic thoughts and anxiety were also more severe in unsafe than in safe situations. Severity of catastrophic thoughts was a significant predictor of anxiety, particularly of situation specific (IBPQ) anxiety. Satisfaction with social support, but not age, duration or severity of illness, was also important, particularly in safe situations. Implications for a cognitive model of anxiety in COPD, and for treatment of anxiety in this disorder, are briefly discussed. Limitations of the study are noted. Suggestions are made for further research.

Accepted as of 8/6/98

Gender differences in pain and pain behaviour: the role of catastrophizing

Michael Sullivan, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
Dalhousie University
Halifax, Nova Scotia
CANADA B3H 4J1

Abstract This research examined gender differences in catastrophizing and pain in 80 healthy students (42 women, 38 men) who participated in an experimental pain procedure. Participants completed the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS; Sullivan, Bishop & Pivik, 1995) prior to immersing one arm in ice water for one minute. Participants were later interviewed to assess the strategies they used to cope with their pain. Independent raters examined videotape records and coded participants' pain behaviour during and following the ice water immersion. Results showed that women reported more intense pain and engaged in pain behaviour for a longer period of time than men. When PCS scores were statistically controlled, gender was no longer a significant predictor of pain or pain behaviour. For women, the helplessness subscale of the PCS contributed unique variance to the prediction of pain and pain behavior For men, none of the PCS subscales contributed unique variance to the prediction of pain and pain behaviour. Discussion addresses the social learning factors that may contribute to gender differences in pain. Discussion also addresses the limitations and clinical implications of the findings.

Thought suppression in obsessive-compulsive disorder

John E. Calamari
Department of Psychology
Finch University of Health Sciences
The Chicago Medical School
3333 Green Bay Road
North Chicago, IL 60064

Abstract The volitional suppression of thoughts and related increases in intrusions has been posited as a model for clinical disorders including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Personally relevant, negative intrusive thoughts were elicited from participants with OCD and nonclinical (NC) subjects. The negative thoughts reported by OCD patients were highly related to core clinical obsessions. Participants with OCD reported more intrusive thoughts than NC subjects regardless of whether they attempted to suppress obsessional intrusions. Group- or experimental-condition-related thought enhancement or rebound was not found, but a greater percentage of the OCD suppression group experienced thought rebound than did the NC suppression group. Volitional thought suppression may be but one of many response strategies employed by individuals with OCD when negative intrusive thoughts occur.

The relation of early abuse to cognition and coping in depression

Willem Kuyken
Center for Cognitive Therapy
Department of Psychiatry
University of Pennsylvania
3600 Market Street
Philadelphia, PA 19104

Abstract The authors investigated the attributional style, self-esteem and coping of currently depressed women with and without a reported history of childhood physical or sexual abuse. Whereas a history of abuse showed few associations with these cognitions, individuals reporting more intrusive memories of abuse had lower self-esteem, a more negative attributional style, and coped through more avoidance. When severity of depression was controlled, abuse history and intrusive memories were still associated with lower levels of positive self-esteem.

Self-discrepancy in social phobia and dysthymia

Debra A. Hope
Department of Psychology
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Lincoln, NE 68588-0308

Abstract Research based on Higgins self-discrepancy theory has generally found that depression and anxiety can be distinguished on the basis of discrepancies between actual views of one's self versus one's ideal self and between actual self versus the self others expect. The present study sought to replicate and extend this work by comparing the self-discrepancies of individuals with social phobia, dysthymia, comorbid social phobia and depression and matched normal comparisons. Generalized social phobics, dysthymics, and the comorbid group reported greater Actual:Ought/Other discrepancies than normals. The comorbid group, but not dysthymics as expected, had elevated Actual:ldeal discrepancies. Overall self-discrepancy scores were less extreme and more variable than expected. Implications for self-discrepancy theory and understanding the relationship between anxiety and depression are discussed.

A brief assessment of irrational thinking: The shortened general attitude and belief scale (SGABS)

Helen Lindner
School of Psychological Science
George Singer Building
La Trobe University
BUNDOORA Australia 3183

Abstract Three studies were undertaken to develop and validate a shortened measure of irrational thinking based on Bernard's (1990) version of the General Attitude and Belief Scale (GABS: Burgess, 1986; DiGiuseppe, Leaf, Exner & Robin, 1988). In Experiment 1 the responses of 356 participants were analysed to derive 26 items from the 55 items of the GABS to form the shortened General Attitude and Belief Scale (SGABS). Experiment 2 established that correlations between the subscales of the GABS and the SCABS (completed 3 days apart by 90 participants) ranged between .60 and .77. In Experiment 3, moderately significant test-retest correlations (.65 to .87) were found between subscale scores obtained from the SGABS, administered three days apart to 36 participants. While a moderate but significant correlation (r= .41) was found between the SCABS and the Beck Depression Inventory, a significantly higher correlation (r= .77) was found between the SCABS and the Irrational Belief Scale. It was concluded that the SCABS provided a brief method of assessing multidimensional aspects of irrational thinking with substantial test-retest reliability and construct validity.

Verbal-autonomic dissociation and adaptation to midlife conjugal loss: A follow-up at 25 months

George A. Bonanno, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
The Catholic University of America
Washington, D.C. 20064

Abstract Individuals who fail to "work through" the emotional significance of a loss have traditionally been assumed to suffer increased grief. Bonanno et al. (1995) tested this assumption by operationally defining emotional avoidance as a verbal-autonomic response dissociation, or the reduced experience of negative emotion coupled with relatively high levels of autonomic responsivity. In contrast to the traditional assumption, individuals who at 6 months had shown verbal-autonomic dissociation had the mildest grief course through 14 months. Verbal-autonomic dissociation was linked to initially high levels of somatic symptoms, but to low somatic symptoms at 14 months. In the current investigation, we collected follow-up data on the same participants through 25 months post-loss and assessed additional health-related variables. Verbal-autonomic dissociation was again linked to the mildest grief course with no evidence of delayed grief. This predictive relationship remained significant even when initial levels of grief were controlled. Further, no evidence was found for enduring or delayed health difficulties in association with verbal-autonomic dissociation. Implications for future bereavement research are discussed.

Interpersonal sensitivity and social problem-solving: Relations with academic and social self-esteem, depressive symptoms, and academic performance

Randi E. McCabe
Department of Psychology
University of Toronto
100 St. George St., 4th Floor
Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G3

Abstract This study investigated the relation between interpersonal sensitivity and social problem-solving as predictors of three outcomes in a college population (N = 207): self esteem, depressive symptoms, and academic performance. Consistent with predictions, interpersonal sensitivity was related to problem-solving, in particular, negative problem orientation. Both interpersonal sensitivity and social problem-solving were significant predictors of self esteem and depressive symptoms, each accounting for unique variance. Interpersonal sensitivity was a significant predictor of academic performance, for both males and females. However, in females, social problem-solving was not related to academic performance. In males, negative problem orientation and dysfunctional problem-solving styles were important aspects of problem-solving related to academic performance. The results are discussed in terms of the identification of "at risk" college students.

Accepted as of 1/30/98

Implicit and explicit memory for threat words in high and low anxiety sensitivity participants

Randi E. McCabe
Department of Psychology
University of Toronto
100 St. George St
Toronto, Ontario
Canada, M5S 3G3

Abstract This study examined memory for anxiety and threat words in high anxiety sensitive (HAS; n = 38) and low anxiety sensitive (LAS; n = 36) participants. Based on Foa and Kozak's (1986) information processing theory of fear, it was hypothesized that HAS participants would remember anxiety and threat- related information better than LAS participants and that physiological arousal would enhance this difference. Support for the first hypothesis was limited. Anxiety sensitivity did affect explicit memory but only for general threat words, not for anxiety words. HAS participants recalled significantly more threat words than neutral, positive, or anxiety words. HAS participants also recalled significantly more threat words than LAS participants. Thus, HAS subjects exhibited an explicit memory bias for threat words, but unexpectedly, not for anxiety words. No implicit memory differences were found. Inconsistent with the second hypothesis, the arousal manipulation (i.e., hyperventilation) had no effect. Because anxiety sensitivity is a cognitive risk factor for panic disorder, results suggest that memory biases for threat may exist in patients prior to the onset of the disorder, perhaps even before the first unexpected panic attack.

Individual differences in percieved information processing styles in stress and coping situations: Development and validation of the Percieved Modes of Processing Inventory

Thomas J. D'Zurilla
Department of Psychology
State University of New York at Stony Brook
Stony Brook, NY 11794-2500

Abstract A new self-report instrument was constructed to assess a person's awareness and perception of his or her dominant mode of information processing in stress and coping situations. The items were based on Epstein's (1990) cognitive-experiential self-theory, which distinguishes between rational and experiential information processing. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses found that this instrument is measuring three perceived cognitive processing styles: (1) rational processing, (2) emotional processing, and (3) automatic processing. Collectively, these measures were named the Perceived Modes of Processing Inventory (PMPI). Data supporting the reliability and criterion validity of the PMPI were presented. In general, perceived rational processing was most strongly and consistently related to adaptive problem-focused coping and positive psychological well-being. Perceived emotional processing was related to adaptive emotion-focused coping (expressing emotions, seeking social support) but it was also related to more psychological distress and less positive well-being.

Cognitive mechanisms in the avoidance of painful and dangerous thoughts: Elaborating the assimilation model

J. Mark G. Williams
School of Psychology
University of Wales
Bangor, UK LL57 2DG

Abtract The emotional processing of problematic experiences is a central feature of psychotherapy. Stiles et al (1990) propose an Assimilation model as a generic account of such processes. This paper focuses on two aspects of this model: the concepts of "warding off" and "unwanted thoughts" showing how a cognitive science perspective can enrich our understanding of them. We focus on the ways in which cognitive processes (particularly different sorts of memory) mediate experience and psychopathology. Two classes of problematic experiences that can be avoided, or barred from full awareness to varying degrees are distinguished. We refer to this distinction as the "pain paradigm", in which experiences are inaccessible to memory retrieval using verbal mnemonics, versus the "panic paradigm" in which experiences fail to be retrieved or reported because the person anticipates catastrophic consequences. We discuss how understanding the cognitive origins of these phenomena promises to allow researchers and therapists to generate new approaches to overcoming blocks in therapy.

Accepted as of 12/02/97

Emotional and Cognitive Processing In a Trauma Disclosure Paradigm

Michael H. Antoni
Departments of Psychology and Psychiatry
University of Miami
P.O. Box 248185
Coral Gables FL 33124-4186

Abstract We have previously reported that in a population of healthy students, those able to involve themselves deeply and establish cognitive change during a 3 week emotional disclosure exercise showed the greatest immunologic changes as reflected in Epstein-Barr virus antibody titer decrements. This report examines the process components of this 3-session verbal disclosure paradigm to clarify the mechanisms by which disclosure may be related to changes in affect, cognitive processing, and resolution of the stressor. Seventy-six healthy college undergraduates were randomized to a 3-session 20 minute verbal disclosure induction in the presence of an experimenter, or to an assessment-only control group. Measures of mood were obtained by self- report at each disclosure session, and a measure of cognitive processing of the stressor was obtained following the first disclosure and one week following the third disclosure. Taped disclosure sessions were rated for level of involvement in the session, and transcripts of the tapes were also rated for total word count. Individuals participating in the disclosure intervention showed an increase in negative mood within the first session with a recovery of mood by the last session. Levels of intrusive thought decreased in all disclosure subjects over the course of the study, as compared to the controls whose levels of intrusive thought stayed the same. A model was tested predicting stressor resolution, cognitive, and affective changes from process variables including depth of involvement, quantity of expression (total word count) and total arousal of negative mood in all disclosures. Greater depth of involvement significantly predicted insight and greater recovery of mood by the end of the study. In contrast, use of more words during disclosure predicted higher levels of intrusion and of negative mood at the end of the study. These findings suggest that involvement in the disclosure process is a key feature in resolution of a stressful or traumatic event, and that it may function independently of affective arousal. In addition, submitting a traumatic event to a linguistic context itself did not seem to be the critical element in facilitating integration and assimilation.

Reactance and Therapeutic Noncompliance

Thomas Dowd
Department of Psychology
118 Kent Hall
Kent State University
Kent, OH 44242

Abstract We explored the behavioral correlates of reactance in actual psychotherapy relationships. Ninety client-therapist pairs participated. Clients completed a well-being improvement rating and two reactance measures. Therapists rated improvement in client global functioning, medication compliance, 61 client behaviors during therapy, and premature termination. Reactance was negatively associated with global improvement, positively with premature termination, but not with medication compliance. Reactance was positively associated with a set of interpersonal distancing behaviors labeled Boundary Augmentation and weakly with boundary reducing behaviors. Reactance was not associated with behaviors indicative of a collaborative relationship nor of disengagement from therapy. Improvement was positively associated with a collaborative relationship and negatively with boundary- reducing behaviors.

Dysfunctional attitudes and Vulnerability to Depressive Symptoms: A 14 week Longitudinal Study

Benjamin M. Dykman
Department of Psychology
Washington State University
Pullman, WA 99164-4820

Abstract Beck's acute-onset model of depression proposes that initially asymptomatic individuals with high levels of dysfunctional attitudes (DA) will become depressed when stressors occur. Using a large student sample (n=275), we conducted a 14-week longitudinal study aimed at testing Beck's model as an acute-onset model. Consistent with past studies (Monroe et al.,1986; Roberts & Monroe, 1992), a DA x Stress interaction did not obtain when all subjects (both symptomatic and asymptomatic) were included in the data analyses. However, when analyses were restricted to initially asymptomatic subjects, the predicted DA x Stress interaction effect did obtain. Specifically under conditions of high stress, initially asymtomatic subjects with high levels of dysfunctional attitudes showed greater increases in depressive symptoms than initially asymptomatic subjects with low levels of dysfunctional attitudes. Follow-up analyses revealed that this DA x Stress interaction was specific to females and not males. Possible reasons for the female-specific effect are discussed. In general, these findings call attention to the fact that subject selection procedures may affect a researcher's ability to predict future onset of depression.

Therapist Skill and Patient Variables in Homework Compliance: Controlling and Uncontrolled Variable in Cognitive Therapy Outcome Research

Michael J. Bryant
RHR International Company
1700 Broadway, Suite 1110
Denver, CO 80290

Abstract Prior research suggests therapists' assignment of homework, and patients' compliance with it, enhances the efficacy of cognitive therapy (CT). However, factors contributing to homework compliance have received scant empirical attention This study examined specific demographic and clinical patient variables (age, education, number of previous depressive episodes, depression severity and learned resourcefulness) and a variety of therapist skills (general, CT- specific, and homework-focused) as they predicted homework compliance among 26 patients in a 20-session CT protocol for major depression. Patients who were more compliant with homework exhibited significantly greater treatment response on one depression measure but not another. Homework compliance was most strongly predicted by therapists' reviewing homework assigned previously, and by general therapeutic skills. Patients' age, education, depression severity and learned resourcefulness were unrelated to compliance; however, number of previous episodes was negatively related to compliance.

Measuring Negative Person Evaluations: The Evaluative Beliefs Scale

Paul Chadwich, Ph.D.
Department of Clinical Psychology
Royal South Hants Hospital
St. Mary's Road
Southampton, SO14 OYG, UK

Abstract We report the development and a preliminary analysis of the Evaluative Beliefs Scale (EBS). The EBS measures negative person evaluations, a key class of beliefs within cognitive psychotherapy and thought to be closely linked to emotional disturbance. Three hundred and ninety four members of a UK based self-help group called Depressives Anonymous completed the Evaluative Beliefs Scale and the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. The EBS was found to have good internal reliability, a clear factor structure and concurrent validity when compared with the HADS. We believe the EBS might have utility for clinical research and practice, not only as an assessment and outcome measure but also for testing hypotheses about connections between cognitions and emotions.

Latino Children's Responses to Simulated Interparental Conflict

Mary O'Brien
901 Nicholson Road
Wynnewood, PA 19096

Abstract Seventy Latino children from homes with physically aggressive and non-physically aggressive marital conflict reported affective, cognitive, and behavioral responses to simulated marital conflicts varying in intensity and content. Results indicate that children who have witnessed marital violence expect more conflict escalation and endorse more parent and child blaming responses than do children who have not witnessed marital violence. In response to child-related, compared to nonchild-related marital conflict, children experience more negative affect, self-blame, and feelings of self-efficacy, and report fewer statements regarding parents' negative affect and parent blame. Children are more likely to blame their parents in response to high-intensity than low-intensity marital conflict. Consistent with Grych & Fincham's (1990) cognitive-contextual theory, these results suggest that Latino children's responses to novel episodes of marital conflict are influenced by previous exposure to marital conflict as well as variations in conflict content and intensity.

Cognitive Distortion and Functional Impairment in Patients Undergoing Cardiac Rehabilitation

Alan J. Christensen
Department of Psychology
E11 Seashore Hall
The University of Iowa
Iowa City, IO 52242

Abstract The present study examined the influence of cognitive distortion (e.g., catastrophizing, overgeneralization) on functional impairment among coronary heart disease (CHD) patients undergoing outpatient cardiac rehabilitation. Forty-two CHD patients completed a version of the Cognitive Errors Questionnaire (CEQ; Lefebvre, 1981) shortly after hospital discharge at the initiation of the rehabilitation program. Functional impairment was assessed both pro and post-rehabilitation using scales from the Sickness Impact Profile (SIP; Bergner et al., 1981) and a measure of peak exercise performance. Consistent with prediction, patients' CEQ score was significantly associated with residualized change in two areas of illness-related functional impairment after controlling for disease severity and pre-rehabilitation levels of functioning. Patients endorsing a high number of cognitive errors on the CEQ reported greater impairment in mobility and poorer social functioning after completion of the rehabilitation program relative to patients making a low number of cognitive errors. CEQ scores did not significantly predict changes in impairment in home management or recreational activity or in peak exercise performance. These findings provide further evidence that cognitive constructs might be useful in understanding individual differences in functional rehabilitation in medical populations and may have implications for the design of cardiac rehabilitation programs.

Transference in Social Cognition: Persistence and exacerbation of Significant Other Based Inferences over time

Noah S. Glassman or Susan M. Anderson
Department of Psychology
New York University
6 Washington Place, 4th floor
New York NY 10003

Abstract A social-cognitive model of transference - defined as the activation and application of a mental representation of a significant other to a new person - has been verified experimentally in terms of relevant inferences and memory about the new person (e.g., Andersen & Cole, l990; Andersen, Classman, Chen, & Cole, 1995). The model suggests that transference should persist and increase over time, indicating that the phenomenon is not fleeting or self-correcting, and is therefore of clinical importance. In two within-subject experiments, participants learned about four fictional people, one of whom resembled their own significant other. They then completed a recognition-memory test. In Study l, the test was administered both immmediately after learning about the new people, and again 2 to 3 weeks afterward. As predicted, greater confidence for having learned representation-consistent attributes that had not been presented in the learning task occurred in the significant-other condition relative to the control conditions - both immediately and after the delay, with the effect increasing over time. The potential artifact of the first memory test vis-a-vis the second was ruled out in Study 2, which showed the persistence effect using a test administered only once 2 to 3 weeks after the learning task. Persistence and exacerbation in the effect have theoretical and clinical implications, as does the general notion that transference occurs in everyday social perception on the basis of significant-other representations.

Testing the causal mediation component of Beck's Theory of Depression: Evidence for Specific Mediation

Thomas E. Joiner, Ph.D.
Department of Psychology
Florida State University
Tallahasee, FL 32306-1051

Abstract Psychopathology researchers are increasingly concerned with the diagnostic and symptom specificity of their findings, yet the specificity of the mechanisms through which hypothesized vulnerability factors culminate in symptoms has received little attention. The present study examined this issue, with regard to Beck's theory of depression. Using a midterm methodology, 119 undergraduates completed questionnaires on dysfunctional attitudes, depressive and anxious cognitions, and depressive symptoms, before and after their midterm examinations. Consistent with prediction, students who were high in dysfunctional attitudes experienced increases in depressive symptoms, but only if they also received a low midterm exam grade. Students high in dysfunctional attitudes who received high grades did not experience symptom increases, similar to students low in dysfunctional attitudes. Quite importantly, the Dysfunctional Attitudes x Midterm Outcome interaction contributed to depressive symptoms through the operation of depressive cognitions, but not through the operation of anxious cognitions.

Ruminative response style and vulnerability to Episodes of Dysphoria: Gender, Neuroticism, and Episode Duration

John E. ROberts
State University of New York at Buffalo
Department of Psychology
Park Hall
Box 604110
Buffalo, NY, 14260-4110

Abstract A number of recent laboratory and prospective field studies suggest that the tendency to ruminate about dysphoric moods is associated with more severe and persistent negative emotional experiences (e.g., Morrow & Nolen-Hoeksema, 1990; Nolen-Hoeksema & Morrow, l991). The current paper reports two studies that tested the hypotheses that: (a) ruminative response styles act as a trait vulnerability to dysphoria, particularly to relatively persistent episodes of dysphoria; (b) aspects of rumination that are not likely to be contaminated with the presence and severity of previous symptomatology (introspection/self-isolation, self-blame) demonstrate vulnerability effects; and (c) rumination mediates the effects of gender and neuroticism on vulnerability to dysphoria. Consistent support was found for each of these hypotheses. Overall, our data suggest that rumination might reflect an important cognitive manifestation of neuroticism that increases vulnerability to episodes of persistent dysphoria.

Gender differences in the Achievement Goal Orientations of ADHD Children

Steven K. Shapiro
Department of Psychology
266 Thach
Auburn University
Auburn, AL 36849

Abstract The purpose of this investigation was to extend the research on achievement goal orientations in normal populations to children with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADHD (N. = 37) and control (N. = 36) boys and girls ranging in age from 7 to 12 participated in an experimental task which allowed for the assessment of goal orientations in the context of a failure situation. Analyses revealed that ADHD children differed from control children on self-report measures of attributional style and well-being. Additionally, the achievement goal orientations adopted by ADHD children were not consistent with those of normal boys. Persistence following failure also differed between ADHD and control children. The implications of these results for individuals working with ADHD children are discussed.

Psychological adjustment to cancer: Control beliefs and coping in adult cancer patients

Bruce E. Compas
Department of Psychology
University of Vermont
Burlington, VT 05405